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2251 lines
43 KiB
Markdown
2251 lines
43 KiB
Markdown
### WhatShanlWeMam?
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# The Tragedy of the Commons
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## Thepopulationproblemhasnotechnicalsolution;
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## itrequiresafundamentalextensioninmorality.
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#### GarrettHardin
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##### Attheendofathoughtfularticleon
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##### thefutureofnuclearwar,Wiesnerand
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##### York(1)concludedthat:"Bothsidesin
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#### thearmsraceare...confrontedbythe
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##### dilemmaofsteadilyincreasingmilitary
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##### powerandsteadilydecreasingnational
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##### security. It is our considered profes-
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##### sionaljudgmentthat thisdilemmahas
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##### notechnicalsolution.Ifthegreatpow-
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##### ers continue to look for solutions in
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##### theareaofscienceandtechnologyonly,
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##### theresultwillbetoworsenthesitua-
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##### tion."
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##### Iwouldliketofocusyourattention
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##### noton the subjectofthe article (na-
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##### tionalsecurityinanuclearworld)but
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##### onthekindofconclusiontheyreached,
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##### namelythatthereisnotechnicalsolu-
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##### tion tothe problem. Animplicit and
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##### almostuniversalassumption ofdiscus-
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##### sions published in professional and
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##### semipopular scientific journals is that
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##### the problem under discussion has a
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##### technicalsolution.Atechnicalsolution
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##### maybedefinedasonethatrequiresa
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##### changeonlyin.the techniques of the
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##### natural sciences, demanding little or
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##### nothinginthewayofchangeinhuman
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##### valuesorideasofmorality.
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##### In our day (though not in earlier
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##### times) technical solutions are always
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##### welcome. Becauseofpreviousfailures
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##### inprophecy,ittakescourage toassert
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##### thata desiredtechnicalsolutionisnot
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##### possible. Wiesner and York exhibited
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##### this courage; publishing in a science
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##### journal, theyinsistedthatthesolution
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##### totheproblemwasnottobefoundin
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##### the natural sciences. They cautiously
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##### qualified their statement with the
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##### phrase, "It is our considered profes-
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Theauthorisprofessorofbiology,University
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of California, Santa Barbara. This article is
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basedonapresidentialaddresspresentedbefore
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themeetingofthePacificDivisionoftheAmeri-
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canAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience
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atUtahStateUniversity,Logan, 25 June1968.
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```
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13 DECEMBER 1968
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```
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##### sional judgment.. .." Vhether they
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##### wererightornotisnottheconcernof
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##### thepresentarticle.Rather,theconcern
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##### hereiswiththeimportantconceptofa
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##### classofhumanproblemswhichcanbe
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#### called"notechnicalsolutionproblems,"
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##### and,morespecifically,withtheidentifi-
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##### cationanddiscussionofone ofthese.
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```
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Itiseasytoshowthattheclassisnot
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a null class.Recall thegameoftick-
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```
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##### tack-toe. Considertheproblem, "How
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##### canIwin.the gameoftick-tack-toe?"
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```
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ItiswellknownthatIcannot,ifIas-
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```
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##### sume(inkeepingwiththeconventions
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```
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ofgametheory)thatmyopponentun-
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```
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##### derstandsthegame perfectly.Put an-
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```
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otherway,thereisno"technicalsolu-
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```
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##### tion" totheproblem. Icanwinonly
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##### bygivingaradicalmeaningtotheword
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```
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"win."Icanhitmyopponentoverthe
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```
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##### head;orIcandrughim;orIcanfalsify
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##### therecords.EverywayinwhichI"win"
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##### involves, in somesense, an abandon-
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##### mentofthegame,asweintuitivelyun-
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##### derstand it. (I can also, of course,
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##### openly abandon the game-refuse to
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##### playit.Thisiswhatmostadultsdo.)
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```
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Theclassof"Notechnicalsolution
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```
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##### problems" hasmembers. Mythesis is
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##### thatthe"populationproblem,"ascon-
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##### ventionallyconceived,isamemberof
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##### thisclass.Howitisconventionallycon-
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##### ceivedneedssomecomment. Itisfair
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##### tosay thatmost people who'anguish
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##### overthepopulationproblemaretrying
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```
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tofindawaytoavoidtheevilsofover-
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```
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##### populationwithoutrelinquishinganyof
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##### the privileges they now enjoy. They
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##### thinkthatfarmingtheseasordevelop-
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##### ingnewstrainsofwheatwillsolvethe
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#### problem-technologically.Itrytoshow
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##### herethatthesolutiontheyseekcannot
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##### befound.Thepopulationproblemcan-
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##### notbesolvedin atechnicalway, any
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##### morethancantheproblemofwinning
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##### thegameoftick-tack-toe.
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### Population,asMalthussaid,naturally
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#### tendstogrow"geometrically,"or,aswe
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#### would now say, exponentially. In a
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##### finite world this means that the per
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### capitashareoftheworld'sgoodsmust
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### steadilydecrease.Isoursafiniteworld?
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#### Afairdefensecanbeputforwardfor
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##### theviewthatthe worldis infinite; or
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##### thatwedonotknowthatitisnot.But,
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#### intermsofthepracticalproblemsthat
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##### wemustfaceinthenextfewgenera-
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#### tionswiththeforeseeabletechnology,it
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### is clear thatwe will greatly increase
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### humanmiseryifwedonot,duringthe
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#### immediatefuture,assumethattheworld
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##### availabletotheterrestrialhumanpop-
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### ulationis finite. "Space" isno escape
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###### (2).
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#### A finite world can support only a
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### finite population;therefore, population
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### growthmusteventuallyequalzero.(The
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#### case of perpetual wide fluctuations
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```
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aboveandbelowzeroisatrivialvariant
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```
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#### thatneednotbediscussed.)Whenthis
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##### conditionismet,whatwillbethesitua-
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#### tionofmankind?Specifically,canBen-
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### tham's goalof"thegreatestgoodfor
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##### the greatestnumber"be realized?
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##### No-fortworeasons,eachsufficient
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#### byitself. Thefirstisatheoreticalone.
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#### It is not mathematically possible to
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#### maximizefortwo(ormore)variablesat
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#### thesametime.Thiswasclearlystated
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#### byvonNeumannandMorgenstern(3),
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### buttheprincipleisimplicitinthetheory
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### ofpartial differentialequations,dating
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### back at least to D'Alembert (1717-
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#### 1783).
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### The second reason springs directly
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#### from biological facts. To live, any
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#### organismmusthaveasourceofenergy
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#### (for example, food). This energy is
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##### utilized fortwopuposes: meremain-
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##### tenance and work. For man, mainte-
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nanceofliferequiresabout (^1600) kilo-
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### caloriesaday("maintenancecalories').
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#### Anythingthathedoesoverandabove
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#### merelystayingalivewill bedefinedas
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#### work,andissupportedby"workcal-
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##### ories"whichhetakesin.Workcalories
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#### areusednotonlyforwhatwecallwork
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#### incommon speech; they arealsore-
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#### quiredforallformsofenjoyment,from
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##### swimming and automobile racing to
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##### playing music and writing poetry. If
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#### ourgoalistomaximizepopulationitis
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##### obvious what we must do: We must
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##### maketheworkcaloriesperpersonap-
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#### proachasclosetozeroaspossible.No
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##### gourmetmeals,novacations,nosports,
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#### nomusic,noliterature, noart.. .. I
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#### thinkthateveryonewillgrant,without
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```
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1243
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```
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```
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on March 12, 2021^
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```
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```
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http://science.sciencemag.org/
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```
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```
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Downloaded from
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```
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```
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argument or proof, that maximizing
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```
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##### population does not max2imize goods.
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##### Bentham'sgoalisimpossible.
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##### In reaching this conclusion I have
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##### madethe usualassumption that it is
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##### the acquisition of energy that is the
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```
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problem. The appearance of atomic
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energyhas led someto questionthis
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assumption.However,givenaninfinite
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source of energy, population growth
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```
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##### stillproducesaninescapable problem.
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##### Theproblemofthe acquisitionofen-
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```
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ergyisreplacedbytheproblemofits
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```
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##### dissipation,asJ.H.Fremlinhassowit-
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##### tilyshown(4).Thearithmeticsignsin
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##### -t-heanalysis are,as itwere, reversed;
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##### butBentham'sgoalisstillunobtainable.
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```
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Theoptimumpopulationis,then,less
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```
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##### than the maximum. The difficulty of
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##### definingtheoptimum isenormous;so
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##### far asI know, no one has seriously
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##### tackledthisproblem. Reaching anac-
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##### ceptableandstablesolutionwillsurely
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##### require more than one generation of
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##### hardanalyticalwork-and muchper-
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##### suasion.
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##### We want the maximum good per
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##### person;butwhatisgood?Tooneper-
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##### sonitiswilderness,toanotheritisski
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#### lodgesforthousands.Tooneitisestu-
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##### aries tonourish ducks forhunters to
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##### shoot; to another it is factory land.
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##### Comparingonegood withanother is,
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##### we usually say, impossible because
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##### goodsareincommensurable.Incommen-
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##### surablescannotbecompared.
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##### Theoreticallythismaybetrue;butin
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##### reallifeincommensurablesarecommen-
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#### surable. Onlyacriterion ofjudgment
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##### andasystemofweightingareneeded.
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##### Innaturethecriterionissurvival.Isit
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##### betterforaspeciestobesmallandhide-
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##### able, orlarge and powerful? Natural
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##### selectioncommensuratestheincommen-
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##### surables.Thecompromiseachievedde-
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##### pends on a natural weighting of the
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##### valuesofthevariables.
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##### Manmustimitatethisprocess.There
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##### isnodoubtthatinfacthealreadydoes,
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##### butunconsciously.Itiswhenthehidden
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##### decisions are made explicit that the
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##### argumentsbegin. Theproblem forthe
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```
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yearsaheadistoworkoutanaccept-
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```
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#### able theory of weighting. Synergistic
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##### effects,nonlinearvariation,anddifficul-
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##### tiesindiscountingthefuturemakethe
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#### intellectual problem difficult, but not
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##### (inprinciple)insoluble.
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##### Has any cultural group solved this
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##### practical problem at thepresenttime,
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#### evenonanintuitivelevel?Onesimple
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##### factprovesthat nonehas: thereisno
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##### prosperouspopulationintheworldto-
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##### day that has, and has had for some
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```
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1244
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```
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```
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time,-p -rateofzero.Anypeople
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```
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##### that has intuitively identified itsopti-
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##### mum point will soon reach it, after
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##### whichitsgrowthratebecomesandre-
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```
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mainszero.
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```
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##### Of course, a positive growth rate
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##### mightbetakenasevidencethatapop-
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##### ulationisbelowitsoptimum.However,
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##### byany reasonablestandards,themost
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##### rapidly growing populations on earth
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```
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todayare(ingeneral)themostmisera-
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```
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##### ble.Thisassociation(whichneednotbe
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##### invariable)castsdoubtontheoptimistic
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```
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assumptionthatthepositivegrowthrate
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```
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##### ofapopulationisevidencethatithas
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```
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yettoreachitsoptimum.
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```
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##### Wecanmakelittleprogressinwork-
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##### ingtowardoptimumpoulationsizeuntil
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```
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we explicitly exorcize the spirit of
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```
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##### Adam Smith inthe field ofpractical
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##### demography.Ineconomic affairs, The
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##### WealthofNations (1776) popularized
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##### the "invisible hand,"the idea thatan
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```
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individual who "intendsonly hisown
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```
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##### gain,"is,asitwere,"ledbyaninvisible
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```
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handtopromote..,.thepublicinterest"
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```
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##### (5). Adam Smith did not assert that
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##### this was invariablytrue, and perhaps
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##### neitherdidanyofhisfollowers.Buthe
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##### contributedtoadominanttendencyof
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##### thoughtthat has eversinceinterfered
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##### with positive action basedonrational
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##### analysis, namely, the tendency to as-
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##### sumethatdecisionsreachedindividually
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##### will,infact,bethebestdecisionsforan
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##### entire society. If this assumption is
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##### correct it justifies the continuance of
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##### our presentpolicy of laissez-faire in
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##### reproduction.Ifitiscorrectwecanas-
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```
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sumethatmenwillcontroltheirindivid-
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```
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##### ualfecunditysoastoproducetheopti-
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##### mumpopulation. If theassumption is
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##### notcorrect,weneedtoreexamineour
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```
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individualfreedoms toseewhichones
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aredefensible.
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```
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##### TragedyofFreedominaCommons
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```
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Therebuttaltotheinvisiblehandin
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```
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##### populationcontrolistobefoundina
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##### scenariofirstsketchedinalittle-known
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##### pamphlet(6)in 1833 byamathematical
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#### amateurnamedWilliamForsterLloyd
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##### (1794-1852).Wemaywellcallit"the
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#### tragedy of the commons," using the
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#### word "tragedy" as the philosopher
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##### Whiteheadusedit(7):"Theessenceof
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#### dramatictragedyisnotunhappiness.It
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#### residesinthesolemnityoftheremorse-
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#### lessworkingofthings."Hethen'goeson.
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### tosay, "Thisinevitableness ofdestiny
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##### canonlybeillustratedintermsofhu-
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##### manlifebyincidentswhichinfactin-
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##### volve unhappiness.For it is onlyby
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##### themthatthefutilityofescapecanbe
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##### madeevidentinthedrama."
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##### Thetragedyofthecommonsdevelops
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##### inthisway. Pictureapastureopento
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##### all.Itistobeexpectedthateachherds-
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##### manwilltrytokeepasmanycattleas
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##### possibleonthecommons.Suchanar-
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```
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rangementmayworkreasonablysatis-
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```
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##### factorily for centuries because tribal
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##### wars, poaching, and disease keep the
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##### numbers ofbothman andbeast well
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##### belowthecarryingcapacityoftheland.
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##### Finally, however, comes the day of
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##### reckoning, that is, the day when the
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##### long-desiredgoalofsocialstabilitybe-
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```
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comesareality. Atthispoint,thein-
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```
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##### herentlogicofthecommonsremorse-
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##### lesslygeneratestragedy.
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##### Asa rationalbeing,eachherdsman
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##### seekstomaximizehis gain.Explicitly
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##### orimplicitly,moreorlessconsciously,
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##### heasks,"Whatistheutilitytomeof
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```
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addingonemoreanimaltomyherd?"
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```
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##### Thisutilityhas onenegative andone
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##### positivecomponent.
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```
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1)Thepositivecomponentisafunc-
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```
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##### tionofthe increment ofone animal.
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##### Since the herdsman receives all the
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##### proceedsfromthesaleoftheadditional
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##### animal,thepositiveutilityisnearly+1.
|
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|
|
##### 2) Thenegativecomponentisafunc-
|
|
|
|
##### tion of the additional overgrazing
|
|
|
|
##### created by one more animal. Since,
|
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|
|
##### however,theeffectsofovergrazingare
|
|
|
|
##### sharedbyalltheherdsmen,thenegative
|
|
|
|
##### utility for any particular decision-
|
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|
|
##### makingherdsmanisonlyafractionof
|
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|
|
##### -1.
|
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|
|
##### Addingtogetherthecomponentpar-
|
|
|
|
##### tial utilities, the rational herdsman
|
|
|
|
##### concludesthattheonlysensiblecourse
|
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|
|
```
|
|
forhim topursue is to add another
|
|
```
|
|
##### animaltohis herd.And another;and
|
|
|
|
##### another....Butthisistheconclusion
|
|
|
|
##### reached by each and every rational
|
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|
|
##### herdsmansharingacommons.Therein
|
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|
|
##### isthetragedy.Eachmanislockedinto
|
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|
|
##### asystemthatcompelshimtoincrease
|
|
|
|
##### hisherdwithoutlimit-inaworldthat
|
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|
|
##### islimited. Ruin isthe destination to-
|
|
|
|
##### wardwhichallmenrush,eachpursuing
|
|
|
|
##### hisownbestinterest ina societythat
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
believes in the freedom of the com-
|
|
```
|
|
#### mons. Freedomina commons brings
|
|
|
|
##### ruintoall.
|
|
|
|
#### Somewouldsaythatthisisaplati-
|
|
|
|
##### tude.Wouldthatitwere!Inasense,it
|
|
|
|
##### waslearnedthousandsofyearsago,but
|
|
|
|
##### natural selectionfavors the forces of
|
|
|
|
#### psychologicaldenial(8).Theindividual
|
|
|
|
#### benefitsasanindividualfromhisability
|
|
|
|
#### todenythetrutheventhoughsocietyas
|
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|
|
##### awhole,ofwhichheisapart,suffers.
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
SCIENCE,VOL. 162
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
on March 12, 2021^
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```
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|
```
|
|
http://science.sciencemag.org/
|
|
```
|
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```
|
|
Downloaded from
|
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```
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|
|
```
|
|
Education can counteract the natural
|
|
```
|
|
##### tendencytodothewrongthing,butthe
|
|
|
|
##### inexorable succession of generations
|
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|
|
##### requiresthatthebasisforthisknowl-
|
|
|
|
##### edgebeconstantlyrefreshed.
|
|
|
|
##### Asimpleincidentthatoccurredafew
|
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|
|
##### yearsagoinLeominster,Massachusetts,
|
|
|
|
##### showshowperishabletheknowledgeis.
|
|
|
|
##### Duringthe Christmasshoppingseason
|
|
|
|
##### the parking meters downtown were
|
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|
|
##### coveredwithplasticbagsthatboretags
|
|
|
|
##### reading:"DonotopenuntilafterChrist-
|
|
|
|
##### mas. Free parking courtesy of the
|
|
|
|
##### mayorandcitycouncil."Inotherwords,
|
|
|
|
##### facingtheprospectofanincreasedde-
|
|
|
|
##### mandforalreadyscarcespace,thecity
|
|
|
|
##### fathers reinstituted the system of the
|
|
|
|
##### commons. (Cynically, we suspect that
|
|
|
|
##### theygainedmorevotesthan theylost
|
|
|
|
##### bythisretrogressiveact.)
|
|
|
|
##### Inanapproximateway,thelogicof
|
|
|
|
##### thecommonshasbeenunderstoodfor
|
|
|
|
##### a long time, perhaps since the dis-
|
|
|
|
##### coveryofagricultureorthe invention
|
|
|
|
##### ofprivateproperty inreal estate. But
|
|
|
|
##### itisunderstoodmostly onlyinspecial
|
|
|
|
##### caseswhicharenotsufficientlygeneral-
|
|
|
|
##### ized.Even atthislate date,cattlemen
|
|
|
|
##### leasing national land on the western
|
|
|
|
##### ranges demonstrate no morethan an
|
|
|
|
##### ambivalentunderstanding,inconstantly
|
|
|
|
##### pressuringfederalauthoritiestoincrease
|
|
|
|
##### theheadcounttothepointwhereover-
|
|
|
|
##### grazing produces erosion and weed-
|
|
|
|
##### dominance.Likewise,theoceansofthe
|
|
|
|
##### worldcontinuetosufferfromthe sur-
|
|
|
|
##### vivalofthephilosophyofthecommons.
|
|
|
|
##### Maritimenationsstillrespondautomat-
|
|
|
|
##### icallytotheshibbolethofthe"freedom
|
|
|
|
##### ofthe seas." Professing tobelieve in
|
|
|
|
##### the "inexhaustible resources of the
|
|
|
|
##### oceans,"theybringspeciesafterspecies
|
|
|
|
##### offishandwhalesclosertoextinction
|
|
|
|
### (9).
|
|
|
|
##### TheNationalParkspresentanother
|
|
|
|
##### instance of the working out of the
|
|
|
|
##### tragedy ofthe commons.At present,
|
|
|
|
##### theyareopentoall,withoutlimit.The
|
|
|
|
##### parksthemselvesarelimitedinextent-
|
|
|
|
##### there is onlyone Yosemite Valley-
|
|
|
|
##### whereaspopulationseemstogrowwith-
|
|
|
|
##### outlimit.Thevaluesthatvisitors seek
|
|
|
|
##### intheparksaresteadilyeroded.Plainly,
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
wemustsoon ceasetotreattheparks
|
|
```
|
|
##### ascommonsortheywillbeofnovalue
|
|
|
|
toanyone.
|
|
|
|
##### Whatshallwedo?Wehaveseveral
|
|
|
|
##### options.Wemightsellthemoffaspri-
|
|
|
|
##### vateproperty.Wemightkeepthemas
|
|
|
|
##### public property,but allocate theright
|
|
|
|
#### toenterthem.Theallocationmightbe
|
|
|
|
##### onthebasisofwealth,bytheuseofan
|
|
|
|
##### auctionsystem.Itmightbeonthebasis
|
|
|
|
#### ofmerit, as defined by some agreed-
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
13 DECEMBER 1968
|
|
```
|
|
##### uponstandards.Itmightbebylottery.
|
|
|
|
##### Or itmight be on a first-come, first-
|
|
|
|
##### served basis, administered to long
|
|
|
|
##### queues. These, I think, are all the
|
|
|
|
##### reasonable possibilities. They are all
|
|
|
|
##### objectionable.Butwemustchoose-or
|
|
|
|
##### acquiesceinthedestructionofthecom-
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
monsthatwecallourNationalParks.
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
Pollution
|
|
```
|
|
##### In a reverse way, the tragedy of
|
|
|
|
##### thecommonsreappearsinproblemsof
|
|
|
|
##### pollution.Hereitisnotaquestion of
|
|
|
|
##### takingsomethingoutofthecommons,
|
|
|
|
#### but of putting something in-sewage,
|
|
|
|
##### or chemical, radioactive, and heat
|
|
|
|
##### wastesintowater;noxiousanddanger-
|
|
|
|
##### ousfumesintotheair;anddistracting
|
|
|
|
##### and unpleasant advertising signs into
|
|
|
|
##### the line of sight. Thecalculations of
|
|
|
|
##### utility are much the same as before.
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
Therationalmanfindsthathisshareof
|
|
```
|
|
##### thecostofthewasteshedischargesinto
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
the commons islessthan the costof
|
|
```
|
|
##### purifying his wastes before releasing
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
them.Sincethisistrueforeveryone,we
|
|
```
|
|
##### arelockedintoasystemof"foulingour
|
|
|
|
##### ownnest," solongaswebehaveonly
|
|
|
|
##### as independent, rational, free-enter-
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
prisers.
|
|
```
|
|
##### The tragedyof the commons as a
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
foodbasketisavertedbyprivateprop-
|
|
```
|
|
##### erty,orsomethingformallylikeit.But
|
|
|
|
##### theairandwaterssurroundinguscan-
|
|
|
|
##### notreadilybefenced,andsothetrag-
|
|
|
|
##### edyofthecommonsasacesspoolmust
|
|
|
|
##### bepreventedbydifferentmeans,byco-
|
|
|
|
##### ercivelawsortaxingdevicesthatmake
|
|
|
|
##### itcheaperforthepollutertotreat his
|
|
|
|
##### pollutantsthanto discharge themun-
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
treated.Wehavenotprogressedasfar
|
|
```
|
|
##### withthesolutionofthisproblemaswe
|
|
|
|
##### havewiththefirst.Indeed,ourparticu-
|
|
|
|
##### larconceptofprivateproperty,which
|
|
|
|
##### deters usfrom exhaustingthepositive
|
|
|
|
##### resourcesoftheearth,favorspollution.
|
|
|
|
##### Theownerofafactoryonthebankof
|
|
|
|
##### a stream-whose property extends to
|
|
|
|
##### the middle of the stream-often has
|
|
|
|
##### difficultyseeingwhyitisnothisnatural
|
|
|
|
##### righttomuddythewatersflowingpast
|
|
|
|
##### hisdoor.The law, alwaysbehindthe
|
|
|
|
##### times,requires elaborate stitchingand
|
|
|
|
##### fittingtoadaptittothisnewlyperceived
|
|
|
|
##### aspectofthecommons.
|
|
|
|
##### The pollution problem is a con-
|
|
|
|
##### sequenceofpopulation.Itdidnotmuch
|
|
|
|
##### matterhowalonelyAmericanfrontiers-
|
|
|
|
##### man disposed ofhis waste. "Flowing
|
|
|
|
##### waterpurifiesitselfevery 10 miles,"my
|
|
|
|
##### grandfatherusedtosay,andthemyth
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
wasnearenoughtothetruthwhenhe
|
|
```
|
|
### wasaboy,fortherewerenottoomany
|
|
|
|
## people.Butaspopulationbecamedenser,
|
|
|
|
#### thenaturalchemicalandbiologicalre-
|
|
|
|
### cycling processes became overloaded,
|
|
|
|
### calling for a redefinition of property
|
|
|
|
## rights.
|
|
|
|
### HowTo LegislateTemperance?
|
|
|
|
### Analysisofthepollutionproblemas
|
|
|
|
### a function of population density un-
|
|
|
|
### coversanotgenerallyrecognizedprin-
|
|
|
|
## cipleofmorality,namely: themorality
|
|
|
|
### ofanactisafunctionofthestateof
|
|
|
|
### thesystematthetimeitisperformed
|
|
|
|
### (10).Usingthecommonsasacesspool
|
|
|
|
#### doesnotharmthegeneralpublicunder
|
|
|
|
#### frontierconditions,becausethereisno
|
|
|
|
### public;thesamebehaviorinametropo-
|
|
|
|
#### lisisunbearable.A hundredandfifty
|
|
|
|
#### years ago a plainsman could kill an
|
|
|
|
#### Americanbison,cutoutonlythetongue
|
|
|
|
#### forhisdinner,anddiscardtherestof
|
|
|
|
### theanimal.Hewasnotin anyimpor-
|
|
|
|
### tantsensebeingwasteful.Today,with
|
|
|
|
#### only a few thousand bison left, we
|
|
|
|
#### wouldbeappalledatsuchbehavior.
|
|
|
|
#### Inpassing,itisworthnotingthatthe
|
|
|
|
#### moralityofanactcannotbedetermined
|
|
|
|
#### fromaphotograph.Onedoesnotknow
|
|
|
|
#### whether amankilling anelephant or
|
|
|
|
### settingflretothegrasslandisharming
|
|
|
|
##### othersuntiloneknowsthetotalsystem
|
|
|
|
### inwhichhisactappears."Onepicture
|
|
|
|
#### is worth a thousand words," said an
|
|
|
|
#### ancientChinese;butitmaytake10,
|
|
|
|
#### wordstovalidateit.Itisastemptingto
|
|
|
|
#### ecologistsasitistoreformersingeneral
|
|
|
|
#### totrytopersuadeothersbywayofthe
|
|
|
|
#### photographicshortcut.Butthe essense
|
|
|
|
#### of an argument cannot be photo-
|
|
|
|
#### graphed:itmustbepresentedrationally
|
|
|
|
##### -inwords.
|
|
|
|
#### That morality is system-sensitive
|
|
|
|
#### escapedtheattentionofmostcodifiers
|
|
|
|
##### of ethics in the past. "Thou shalt
|
|
|
|
##### not.. ." is the form of traditional
|
|
|
|
##### ethicaldirectiveswhichmakenoallow-
|
|
|
|
#### anceforparticularcircumstances. The
|
|
|
|
#### lawsofoursocietyfollowthepatternof
|
|
|
|
#### ancientethics,andthereforearepoorly
|
|
|
|
#### suitedtogoverningacomplex,crowded,
|
|
|
|
#### changeable world. Ourepicyclic solu-
|
|
|
|
##### tion istoaugment statutorylaw with
|
|
|
|
##### administrativelaw.Sinceitispractically
|
|
|
|
#### impossibletospelloutalltheconditions
|
|
|
|
##### underwhichitissafetoburntrashin
|
|
|
|
##### thebackyardortorunanautomobile
|
|
|
|
##### withoutsmog-control, bylawwe dele-
|
|
|
|
##### gatethe detailstobureaus.Theresult
|
|
|
|
##### isadministrative law, whichis rightly
|
|
|
|
#### feared for an ancient reason-Quis
|
|
|
|
##### custodiet ipsos custodes?-"Who shall
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
1245
|
|
-A
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
on March 12, 2021^
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
http://science.sciencemag.org/
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
Downloaded from
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
##### watchthe watchersthemselves?" John
|
|
|
|
##### Adamssaidthatwemusthave"agov-
|
|
|
|
##### ernmentoflawsandnotmen."Bureau
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
administrators, trying to evaluate the
|
|
moralityofactsinthetotalsystem,are
|
|
```
|
|
##### singularlyliable tocorruption, produc-
|
|
|
|
##### ingagovernmentbymen,notlaws.
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
Prohibition is easy to legislate
|
|
```
|
|
##### (thoughnotnecessarilytoenforce);but
|
|
|
|
##### howdo welegislate temperance? Ex-
|
|
|
|
##### perience indicates that it can be ac-
|
|
|
|
complishedbestthrough themediation
|
|
ofadministrative law. Welimit possi-
|
|
|
|
##### bilitiesunnecessarilyifwesupposethat
|
|
|
|
##### thesentimentof Quiscustodietdenies
|
|
|
|
us the useofadministrative law. We
|
|
should rather retain the phrase as a
|
|
perpetual reminder offearful dangers
|
|
we cannotavoid. The great challenge
|
|
|
|
##### facingusnowistoinventthecorrective
|
|
|
|
##### feedbacksthatareneededtokeepcus-
|
|
|
|
##### todians honest.We mustfindways to
|
|
|
|
##### legitimatetheneededauthorityofboth
|
|
|
|
thecustodiansandthecorrectivefeed-
|
|
|
|
##### backs.
|
|
|
|
##### Freedom To Breed Is Intolerable
|
|
|
|
##### Thetragedyofthe commons isin-
|
|
|
|
##### volved in population problems inan-
|
|
|
|
##### otherway. Inaworldgovernedsolely
|
|
|
|
##### by theprincipleof"dog eatdog"-if
|
|
|
|
##### indeedthereeverwassuchaworld-
|
|
|
|
##### howmanychildrenafamilyhadwould
|
|
|
|
##### not be a matter of public concern.
|
|
|
|
##### Parentswhobredtooexuberantlywould
|
|
|
|
##### leavefewerdescendants,notmore,be-
|
|
|
|
##### cause they would be unable to care
|
|
|
|
##### adequately for their children. David
|
|
|
|
##### Lackandothershavefoundthatsucha
|
|
|
|
##### negative feedback demonstrably con-
|
|
|
|
##### trols the fecundity ofbirds (11). But
|
|
|
|
##### menarenotbirds,andhavenotacted
|
|
|
|
##### likethemformillenniums,atleast.
|
|
|
|
##### If eachhumanfamily weredepen-
|
|
|
|
##### dentonlyonitsownresources;ifthe
|
|
|
|
##### childrenofimprovidentparentsstarved
|
|
|
|
##### todeath;if,thus,overbreedingbrought
|
|
|
|
##### itsown"punishment"tothegermline-
|
|
|
|
##### thentherewouldbenopublic interest
|
|
|
|
##### incontrollingthebreedingoffamilies.
|
|
|
|
##### Butoursocietyisdeeplycommittedto
|
|
|
|
##### thewelfare state (12), and hence is
|
|
|
|
##### confrontedwithanotheraspectofthe
|
|
|
|
##### tragedyofthecommons.
|
|
|
|
##### Inawelfarestate,howshallwedeal
|
|
|
|
##### withthefamily,thereligion, therace,
|
|
|
|
#### ortheclass(orindeedanydistinguish-
|
|
|
|
#### able and cohesive group) that adopts
|
|
|
|
##### overbreeding asa policyto secureits
|
|
|
|
#### own aggrandizement (13)? To couple
|
|
|
|
##### the conceptoffreedomtobreedwith
|
|
|
|
##### the belief that everyone born has an
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
1246
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
equalrighttothecommonsistolock
|
|
theworldintoatragiccourseofaction.
|
|
Unfortunatelythisisjustthecourse
|
|
ofactionthatisbeingpursued bythe
|
|
UnitedNations.Inlate1967,some 30
|
|
nationsagreedtothefollowing(14):
|
|
The Universal Declaration of Human
|
|
Rightsdescribesthefamilyasthenatural
|
|
and fundamental unit ofsociety. Itfol-
|
|
lows that anychoice and decision with
|
|
regardtothesizeofthefamilymustirte-
|
|
vocably rest with the family itself, and
|
|
cannot bemadebyanyoneelse.
|
|
Itispainfultohavetodenycategor-
|
|
icallythevalidityofthisright;denying
|
|
```
|
|
##### it,onefeelsasuncomfortableasaresi-
|
|
|
|
##### dent of Salem, Massachusetts, who
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
deniedtherealityofwitchesinthe17th
|
|
century.Atthepresenttime,inliberal
|
|
quarters,somethinglikeatabooactsto
|
|
```
|
|
##### inhibitcriticismoftheUnitedNations.
|
|
|
|
##### There is a feeling that the United
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
Nations is "our last and best hope,"
|
|
```
|
|
##### thatweshouldn'tfindfaultwithit;we
|
|
|
|
##### shouldn't play into the hands of the
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
archconservatives. However,letusnot
|
|
```
|
|
##### forget what Robert Louis Stevenson
|
|
|
|
##### said: "Thetruththatissuppressedby
|
|
|
|
##### friends isthe readiest weapon ofthe
|
|
|
|
##### enemy."Ifwelovethetruthwemust
|
|
|
|
##### openlydenythevalidityoftheUniversal
|
|
|
|
##### Declaration of Human Rights, even
|
|
|
|
##### thoughit is promoted bythe United
|
|
|
|
##### Nations. We should also join with
|
|
|
|
##### Kingsley Davis (15) inattemptingto
|
|
|
|
##### getPlannedParenthood-WorldPopula-
|
|
|
|
##### tiontoseetheerrorofitswaysinem-
|
|
|
|
##### bracingthesametragicideal.
|
|
|
|
##### ConscienceIsSelf-Eliminating
|
|
|
|
##### Itisamistaketothinkthatwecan
|
|
|
|
##### controlthebreedingofmankindinthe
|
|
|
|
##### long run byan appealtoconscience.
|
|
|
|
##### CharlesGaltonDarwinmadethispoint
|
|
|
|
##### whenhespokeonthecentennialofthe
|
|
|
|
##### publication of his grandfather's great
|
|
|
|
##### book. The argumentisstraightforward
|
|
|
|
##### andDarwinian.
|
|
|
|
##### Peoplevary.Confrontedwithappeals
|
|
|
|
#### tolimitbreeding,somepeoplewillun-
|
|
|
|
#### doubtedly respond to the plea more
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
than others. Those who have more
|
|
```
|
|
##### childrenwillproduce alargerfraction
|
|
|
|
##### ofthenextgenerationthanthosewith
|
|
|
|
##### moresusceptibleconsciences. Thedif-
|
|
|
|
#### ferencewillbeaccentuated, generation
|
|
|
|
##### bygeneration.
|
|
|
|
##### InC. G. Darwin'swords: "It may
|
|
|
|
##### wellbethatitwouldtakehundredsof
|
|
|
|
#### generationsfortheprogenitive instinct
|
|
|
|
##### todevelopinthisway,butifitshould
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
do so, nature would have taken her
|
|
```
|
|
#### revenge,andthevarietyHomocontra-
|
|
|
|
##### cipiens would become extinct and
|
|
|
|
##### wouldbereplacedbythevarietyHomo
|
|
|
|
##### progenitivus" (16).
|
|
|
|
##### The argument assumes that con-
|
|
|
|
##### scienceor thedesire forchildren (no
|
|
|
|
##### matterwhich)ishereditary-butheredi-
|
|
|
|
##### tary only in the most general formal
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
sense. The result will be the same
|
|
```
|
|
##### whether the attitude is transmitted
|
|
|
|
##### throughgerm cells, orexosomatically,
|
|
|
|
##### touseA.J.Lotka'sterm.(Ifonedenies
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
the latter possibility as well as the
|
|
```
|
|
##### former,thenwhat'sthepointofeduca-
|
|
|
|
##### tion?) The argument has here been
|
|
|
|
##### statedinthecontextofthepopulation
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
problem,butitapplies equallywellto
|
|
```
|
|
##### any instance in whichsociety appeals
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
toanindividualexploitingacommons
|
|
to restrain himself for the general
|
|
```
|
|
##### good-bymeansofhisconscience.To
|
|
|
|
##### make such anappeal is to set up a
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
selectivesystemthatworkstowardthe
|
|
eliminationofconsciencefromtherace.
|
|
```
|
|
##### PathogenicEffectsofConscience
|
|
|
|
##### The long-term disadvantage of an
|
|
|
|
##### appealtoconscience shouldbeenough
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
tocondemn it; but hasserious short-
|
|
```
|
|
##### term disadvantagesaswell. Ifwe ask
|
|
|
|
##### amanwhoisexploitingacommonsto
|
|
|
|
##### desist "in the name of conscience,"
|
|
|
|
##### whatarewesayingtohim?Whatdoes
|
|
|
|
##### hehear?-notonlyatthemomentbut
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
also in the wee small hours of the
|
|
```
|
|
##### nightwhen, halfasleep,heremembers
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
notmerelythewordsweusedbutalso
|
|
the nonverbalcommunication cueswe
|
|
gave him unawares? Sooner or later,
|
|
```
|
|
##### consciouslyorsubconsciously,hesenses
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
thathehas received two communica-
|
|
```
|
|
##### tions,andthattheyarecontradictory:
|
|
|
|
##### (i) (intendedcommunication) "Ifyou
|
|
|
|
##### don'tdoasweask,wewillopenlycon-
|
|
|
|
##### demnyoufornotactinglikearespon-
|
|
|
|
##### sible citizen"; (ii) (the unintended
|
|
|
|
##### communication) "Ifyoudobehaveas
|
|
|
|
##### weask,wewillsecretlycondemr.you
|
|
|
|
##### for a simpleton who can be shamed
|
|
|
|
##### intostandingasidewhiletherestofus
|
|
|
|
##### exploitthecommons."
|
|
|
|
##### Everyman then is caught in what
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
Bateson has called a "double bind."
|
|
Batesonandhisco-workershavemade
|
|
```
|
|
##### aplausiblecaseforviewingthedouble
|
|
|
|
##### bindasanimportantcausativefactorin
|
|
|
|
##### the genesisofschizophrenia(17).The
|
|
|
|
##### double bind may not always be so
|
|
|
|
#### damaging,butitalwaysendangersthe
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
mentalhealthofanyonetowhomitis
|
|
```
|
|
##### applied. "A bad conscience," said
|
|
|
|
##### Nietzsche,"isakindofillness."
|
|
|
|
##### Toconjureupaconscienceinothers
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
SCIENCE,VOL. 162
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
on March 12, 2021^
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
http://science.sciencemag.org/
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
Downloaded from
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
##### istempting toanyonewho wishes to
|
|
|
|
##### extend his control beyond the legal
|
|
|
|
#### limits. Leaders at the highest level
|
|
|
|
##### succumb to this temptation. Hasany
|
|
|
|
##### President during the past generation
|
|
|
|
##### failedtocallonlaborunionstomoder-
|
|
|
|
##### atevoluntarilytheirdemandsforhigher
|
|
|
|
##### wages,ortosteelcompaniestohonor
|
|
|
|
##### voluntary guidelines on prices?I can
|
|
|
|
##### recallnone.Therhetoricusedonsuch
|
|
|
|
##### occasionsis designedtoproducefeel-
|
|
|
|
##### ingsofguiltinnoncooperators.
|
|
|
|
##### Forcenturiesitwasassumedwithout
|
|
|
|
##### proofthatguiltwasavaluable,perhaps
|
|
|
|
##### evenanindispensable,ingredientofthe
|
|
|
|
##### civilizedlife.Now,inthispost-Freudian
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
world,wedoubtit.
|
|
Paul Goodman speaks from the
|
|
modern point ofview when he says:
|
|
```
|
|
##### "Nogood hasevercome fromfeeling
|
|
|
|
##### guilty, neither intelligence,policy, nor
|
|
|
|
##### compassion. The guilty do not pay
|
|
|
|
##### attentiontotheobjectbutonlytothem-
|
|
|
|
##### selves, and noteven totheirown in-
|
|
|
|
##### terests,whichmightmakesense,butto
|
|
|
|
##### theiranxieties" (18).
|
|
|
|
##### Onedoes nothavetobe a profes-
|
|
|
|
##### sional psychiatrist to see the conse-
|
|
|
|
##### quencesofanxiety.WeintheWestern
|
|
|
|
##### worldarejustemergingfromadreadful
|
|
|
|
##### two-centuries-long DarkAgesofEros
|
|
|
|
##### that was sustained partly by prohibi-
|
|
|
|
##### tionlaws,butperhapsmoreeffectively
|
|
|
|
##### by the anxiety-generating mechanisms
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
ofeducation.AlexComforthastoldthe
|
|
```
|
|
##### storywellinTheAnxietyMakers(19);
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
itisnotaprettyone.
|
|
```
|
|
##### Sinceproofisdifficult,wemayeven
|
|
|
|
##### concedethattheresultsofanxietymay
|
|
|
|
##### sometimes,fromcertainpointsofview,
|
|
|
|
##### be desirable. The larger question we
|
|
|
|
##### should askiswhether, asa matterof
|
|
|
|
##### policy, we should everencourage the
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
useofatechniquethetendency(ifnot
|
|
```
|
|
##### the intention) of whichispsycholog-
|
|
|
|
##### ically pathogenic. Wehearmuchtalk
|
|
|
|
##### these daysofresponsible parenthood;
|
|
|
|
##### the coupled words are incorporated
|
|
|
|
##### intothetitlesofsomeorganizationsde-
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
voted to birth control. Some people
|
|
```
|
|
##### have proposed massive propaganda
|
|
|
|
#### campaigns to instillresponsibility into
|
|
|
|
##### thenation's (ortheworld's) breeders.
|
|
|
|
##### Butwhat isthemeaning ofthe word
|
|
|
|
##### responsibilityinthis context?Isitnot
|
|
|
|
##### merelya synonym for theword con-
|
|
|
|
##### science? When we use the word re-
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
sponsibilityintheabsenceofsubstantial
|
|
```
|
|
##### sanctionsarewenottryingtobrowbeat
|
|
|
|
a freemaninacommonsintoacting
|
|
|
|
##### againsthisowninterest?Responsibility
|
|
|
|
##### isaverbalcounterfeitforasubstantial
|
|
|
|
##### quidproquo. Itisan attempt toget
|
|
|
|
##### somethingfornothing.
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
13 DECEMBER 1968
|
|
```
|
|
##### If the word responsibility is to be
|
|
|
|
##### usedatall,Isuggestthatit beinthe
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
sense Charles Frankel uses it (20).
|
|
```
|
|
#### "Responsibility," saysthisphilosopher,
|
|
|
|
##### "is the product of definite social ar-
|
|
|
|
##### rangements."Notice thatFrankelcalls
|
|
|
|
##### for social arrangements-not propa-
|
|
|
|
#### ganda.
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
MutualCoercion
|
|
```
|
|
##### MutuallyAgreedupon
|
|
|
|
#### Thesocialarrangementsthatproduce
|
|
|
|
##### responsibility are arrangements that
|
|
|
|
##### createcoercion, of somesort. Consid-
|
|
|
|
##### er bank-robbing. The man whotakes
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
moneyfromabankactsasifthebank
|
|
```
|
|
##### wereacommons.How doweprevent
|
|
|
|
##### suchaction?Certainlynotbytryingto
|
|
|
|
##### controlhisbehaviorsolelybyaverbal
|
|
|
|
##### appeal to his sense of responsibility.
|
|
|
|
##### Rather than rely on propaganda we
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
followFrankel'sleadandinsistthata
|
|
bank isnot a commons; we seek the
|
|
definite social arrangements that will
|
|
```
|
|
##### keep it from becoming a commons.
|
|
|
|
##### Thatwetherebyinfringeon thefree-
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
dom of would-be robbers we neither
|
|
```
|
|
##### denynorregret.
|
|
|
|
##### The morality of bank-robbing is
|
|
|
|
##### particularlyeasytounderstandbecause
|
|
|
|
##### weacceptcompleteprohibitionofthis
|
|
|
|
##### activity. We arewillingto say"Thou
|
|
|
|
##### shaltnotrobbanks,"withoutproviding
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
forexceptions.Buttemperancealsocan
|
|
```
|
|
##### becreatedbycoercion.Taxingisagood
|
|
|
|
##### coercive device. To keep downtown
|
|
|
|
##### shoppers temperate in their use of
|
|
|
|
##### parking space we introduce parking
|
|
|
|
##### meters for short periods, and traffic
|
|
|
|
##### fines for longer ones. We need not
|
|
|
|
##### actuallyforbidacitizentoparkaslong
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
ashewantsto;weneedmerelymakeit
|
|
```
|
|
##### increasinglyexpensiveforhimtodoso.
|
|
|
|
##### Not prohibition, but carefully biased
|
|
|
|
##### optionsarewhatweofferhim.AMadi-
|
|
|
|
##### son Avenue man might callthisper-
|
|
|
|
##### suasion;Ipreferthegreatercandorof
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
theword coercion.
|
|
```
|
|
##### Coercion is a dirty word to most
|
|
|
|
##### liberalsnow,butitneednotforeverbe
|
|
|
|
##### so. As withthe four-letter words, its
|
|
|
|
##### dirtiness canbecleansed awayby ex-
|
|
|
|
##### posuretothelight,bysayingitoverand
|
|
|
|
##### overwithoutapologyorembarrassment.
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
To many, the word coercion implies
|
|
```
|
|
##### arbitrarydecisionsofdistantandirre-
|
|
|
|
##### sponsiblebureaucrats;butthisisnota
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
necessarypartofitsmeaning.Theonly
|
|
```
|
|
##### kindofcoercionIrecommendismutual
|
|
|
|
##### coercion,mutuallyagreeduponbythe
|
|
|
|
##### majorityofthepeopleaffected.
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
Tosay that we mutually agree to
|
|
```
|
|
##### coercionisnottosaythatwearere-
|
|
|
|
#### quiredtoenjoyit,oreventopretend
|
|
|
|
#### weenjoyit.Whoenjoystaxes?Weall
|
|
|
|
#### grumble about them. But we accept
|
|
|
|
### compulsorytaxesbecausewerecognize
|
|
|
|
### that voluntary taxes would favor the
|
|
|
|
#### conscienceless.Weinstituteand(grum-
|
|
|
|
#### blingly)supporttaxesandothercoercive
|
|
|
|
##### devices to escape the horror of the
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
commons.
|
|
```
|
|
##### Analternativetothecommonsneed
|
|
|
|
### notbeperfectlyjust tobe preferable.
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
With real estate and other material
|
|
```
|
|
#### goods, thealternative wehavechosen
|
|
|
|
#### is the institution of private property
|
|
|
|
#### coupled withlegal inheritance. Isthis
|
|
|
|
### systemperfectlyjust?Asa genetically
|
|
|
|
### trained biologist I deny that it is. It
|
|
|
|
#### seemstomethat,iftherearetobedif-
|
|
|
|
#### ferencesinindividualinheritance,legal
|
|
|
|
#### possession should be perfectly cor-
|
|
|
|
#### relatedwithbiologicalinheritance-that
|
|
|
|
#### thosewhoarebiologicallymorefit to
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
bethecustodiansofpropertyandpower
|
|
```
|
|
### shouldlegallyinheritmore.Butgenetic
|
|
|
|
#### recombination continually makes a
|
|
|
|
#### mockeryofthedoctrineof"likefather,
|
|
|
|
#### likeson"implicitinourlawsoflegalin-
|
|
|
|
#### heritance.Anidiotcaninheritmillions,
|
|
|
|
##### anda trust fund can keephis estate
|
|
|
|
### intact. We mustadmit thatour legal
|
|
|
|
#### systemofprivateproperty plusinheri-
|
|
|
|
#### tanceisunjust-butweputupwithit
|
|
|
|
#### becausewe are notconvinced, atthe
|
|
|
|
##### moment, that anyone has invented a
|
|
|
|
##### better system. The alternative of the
|
|
|
|
#### commonsistoohorrifyingtocontem-
|
|
|
|
##### plate. Injustice is preferable to total
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
ruin.
|
|
```
|
|
##### Itisoneofthe peculiaritiesofthe
|
|
|
|
##### warfarebetweenreformandthestatus
|
|
|
|
##### quo that it is thoughtlessly governed
|
|
|
|
##### byadoublestandard.Wheneverare-
|
|
|
|
##### formmeasure is proposedit is often
|
|
|
|
##### defeated when its opponents trium-
|
|
|
|
#### phantlydiscoveraflawinit.AsKings-
|
|
|
|
#### leyDavishaspointedout(21),worship-
|
|
|
|
##### persofthestatusquosometimesimply
|
|
|
|
##### thatnoreformispossiblewithoutunan-
|
|
|
|
##### imous agreement, animplication con-
|
|
|
|
##### trarytohistoricalfact.AsnearlyasI
|
|
|
|
##### canmake out, automaticrejection of
|
|
|
|
##### proposedreformsis based on oneof
|
|
|
|
##### twounconscious assumptions: (i) that
|
|
|
|
##### thestatusquoisperfect;or(ii)thatthe
|
|
|
|
##### choicewefaceisbetweenreformand
|
|
|
|
##### no action; if theproposed reform is
|
|
|
|
##### imperfect,we presumablyshould take
|
|
|
|
##### noaction atall, while wewait fora
|
|
|
|
##### perfectproposal.
|
|
|
|
##### Butwecanneverdonothing.That
|
|
|
|
##### whichwehavedonefor thousandsof
|
|
|
|
##### years is also action. Italso produces
|
|
|
|
##### evils. Once we are aware that the
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
1247
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
on March 12, 2021^
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
http://science.sciencemag.org/
|
|
```
|
|
```
|
|
Downloaded from
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
statusquoisaction,wecanthencom-
|
|
```
|
|
##### pare its discoverable advantages and
|
|
|
|
##### disadvantages with the predicted ad-
|
|
|
|
##### vantagesanddisadvantagesofthepro-
|
|
|
|
##### posed reform, discounting as bestwe
|
|
|
|
##### canforourlackofexperience.Onthe
|
|
|
|
##### basis of such a comparison, we can
|
|
|
|
##### makearationaldecisionwhichwillnot
|
|
|
|
##### involvetheunworkableassumptionthat
|
|
|
|
onlyperfectsystemsaretolerable.
|
|
|
|
##### RecognitionofNecessity
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
Perhapsthesimplestsummaryofthis
|
|
```
|
|
##### analysis ofman'spopulation problems
|
|
|
|
##### isthis: the commons, if justifiable at
|
|
|
|
##### all,isjustifiable onlyunderconditions
|
|
|
|
##### oflow-population density. As thehu-
|
|
|
|
##### man population has increased, the
|
|
|
|
##### commonshashadtobeabandonedin
|
|
|
|
oneaspectafteranother.
|
|
|
|
##### Firstweabandonedthecommonsin
|
|
|
|
##### food gathering, enclosing farm land
|
|
|
|
##### and restricting pastures and hunting
|
|
|
|
##### and fishing areas. These restrictions
|
|
|
|
##### are still not complete throughout the
|
|
|
|
##### world.
|
|
|
|
##### Somewhatlaterwesawthatthecom-
|
|
|
|
##### mons as a place for waste disposal
|
|
|
|
##### wouldalsohavetobeabandoned. Re-
|
|
|
|
##### strictions onthe disposalof domestic
|
|
|
|
##### sewage are widely accepted in the
|
|
|
|
#### Westernworld;weare stillstruggling
|
|
|
|
##### toclosethecommons topollutionby
|
|
|
|
##### automobiles, factories, insecticide
|
|
|
|
#### sprayers, fertilizing operations, and
|
|
|
|
##### atomicenergyinstallations.
|
|
|
|
##### Inastillmoreembryonicstateisour
|
|
|
|
##### recognitionoftheevilsofthecommons
|
|
|
|
#### inmattersofpleasure.Thereisalmost
|
|
|
|
##### no restriction on the propagation of
|
|
|
|
#### soundwavesinthepublicmedium.The
|
|
|
|
##### shoppingpublicisassaultedwithmind-
|
|
|
|
#### less music, without its consent. Our
|
|
|
|
##### government is paying out billions of
|
|
|
|
##### dollars to create supersonic transport
|
|
|
|
##### which will disturb 50,000 people for
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
everyonepersonwhoiswhiskedfrom
|
|
coast to coast 3 hours faster. Adver-
|
|
```
|
|
##### tisersmuddytheairwavesofradioand
|
|
|
|
##### television and pollute the view of
|
|
|
|
```
|
|
travelers.Wearealongwayfromout-
|
|
```
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##### lawing the commons in matters of
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```
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pleasure. Is this because our Puritan
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```
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##### inheritance makesusview pleasureas
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```
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somethingofa sin,andpain (thatis,
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```
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##### thepollutionofadvertising)asthesign
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##### ofvirtue?
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```
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Every new enclosure of the com-
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```
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##### mons involves the infringement of
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##### somebody's personal liberty. Infringe-
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##### mentsmadeinthedistantpastareac-
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##### cepted becausenocontemporary com-
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```
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plainsof a loss. It isthe newlypro-
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```
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##### posedinfringementsthatwevigorously
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##### oppose;criesof"rights"and"freedom"
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##### fillthe air.But whatdoes "freedom"
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##### mean?Whenmen mutually agreedto
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##### passlawsagainstrobbing,mankindbe-
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##### camemorefree,notlessso.Individuals
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##### lockedinto thelogicofthe commons
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##### arefreeonlytobringonuniversalruin;
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##### once theyseethe necessityofmutual
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##### coercion, they become free to pursue
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##### othergoals.IbelieveitwasHegelwho
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##### said, "Freedom is the recognition of
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##### necessity."
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##### Themostimportantaspectofneces-
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##### sitythatwemustnowrecognize,isthe
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#### necessityof abandoning the commons
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##### inbreeding. Notechnicalsolutioncan
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##### rescueusfromthemiseryofoverpopu-
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#### lation. Freedom to breed will bring
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##### ruin to all.At the moment,to avoid
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#### harddecisionsmanyofusaretempted
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##### to propagandize for conscience and
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#### responsible parenthood. The tempta-
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##### tion mustbe resisted,because an ap-
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##### peal to independently acting con-
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##### sciences selects for the disappearance
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##### ofallconscienceinthelongrun,and
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#### anin,creaseinanxietyintheshort.
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```
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Theonlywaywe canpreserveand
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nurtureotherandmore preciousfree-
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```
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##### doms is byrelinquishingthe freedom
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##### tobreed,andthatverysoon."Freedom
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##### istherecognitionofnecessity"-andit
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##### istheroleofeducationtorevealtoall
|
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##### the necessity of abandoning the free-
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#### domtobreed.Onlyso,canweputan
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##### endtothisaspectofthetragedyofthe
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```
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commons.
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```
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```
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References
|
|
1.J.B. WiesnerandH. F.York,Sci.Amer.
|
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211 (No.4),^27 (1964).
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2.G.Hardin,J.Hered.50,^68 (1959);S.von
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London,1967).
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Man (Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York,
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1966),p.177.
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|
```
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```
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1248 SCIENCE,VOL.^162
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on March 12, 2021^
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The Tragedy of the Commons
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Garrett Hardin
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DOI: 10.1126/science.162.3859.
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Science 162 (3859), 1243-1248.
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ARTICLE TOOLS http://science.sciencemag.org/content/162/3859/
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REFERENCES
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http://science.sciencemag.org/content/162/3859/1243#BIBL
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This article cites 11 articles, 2 of which you can access for free
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PERMISSIONS http://www.sciencemag.org/help/reprints-and-permissions
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Science (print ISSN 0036-8075; online ISSN 1095-9203) is published by the American Association for the
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of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.
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Copyright © 1968 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement
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on March 12, 2021^
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